ianruh

I am not an expert, but it’s worth noting that the kp index has a maximum value of 9. So though the Carrington event had a kp of 9, its intensity on the related (but not capped) HP30/HP60 scale [1] would likely have been higher. [1] https://kp.gfz.de/en/hp30-hp60

It comes from representing your system dynamics as a set of linear equations in your state variables (which might be position, velocity, etc). The A matrix is the linear map from the previous state at time t to the next state at time t+1. The B matrix is similar, except it determines the impact of your control input u on the next state of the system.