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I wonder if increased reliance on VPPs increases the difficulty of a black start. Especially since these things are internet controlled, I can't help but feel like there's a bit of a circular dependency. Can't coordinate the VPP without internet, can't have internet without power, can we black start without coordinating the VPP?

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You can't do a black start from the lowest potential part of the grid anyways. Synchronization isn't the hardest part. You could solve this with GPS and cellular telecommunications. Fault current handling is where things fall apart. You have to start the grid from the top. Fault current has to flow in the right direction or none of the existing equipment will function correctly.

The power walls can help to stabilize islands once they're back online, but they can't meaningfully participate in the initial phase.

That's an interesting question. I would think that it depends on what generation the batteries are replacing. As far as I know VPPs are relying on domestic inverters that do not have grid forming functionality required for black start. So you essentially have less plant capable of black start which I would think makes your black start capability worse.

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