Thanks a lot! I see now, I am able to reproduce the issue if I go into chrome://flags, search for "Auto Dark Mode for Web Contents", and select "Enabled with simple HSL-based inversion". Just choosing "Enabled" seemed to break the LaTeX entirely. (Please let me know if that isn't roughly what you did)

I don't know how I'll fix this (I've never really debugged mobile web specific stuff before), but I'll look into it this weekend.

There must be a way to fix it, since I don't see the issue when going to https://www.mathjax.org/#demo and entering something like this: $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}$$

EDIT: I actually have no idea why this would be happening, unless there is some sort of metadata that I should be providing on the page to tell chrome how to enable dark mode on my content. I don't think I'm messing with the styling on the web version at all.