Lambda functions
Smart pointers = less need for *
Move semantics = less need for pointers, efficient pass/return-by-value
Type inference with `auto`
`nullptr` = strongly-typed null pointer type sans macros
`constexpr` = compile-time programming sans macros
Deleted functions = can prevent things like accidental copies
Range-based `for` = very similar to Java's for-each
That should mostly catch you up from C++03 to C++11-ish (language features only; there's plenty more to explore with library changes). C++14 and 17 had some refinements to those items so review the above in a current context for additional enhancements to them. C++20 adds some major things like concepts and modules, but starting there might not be the best idea to get up to speed.
(I'm a C++ amateur and hobbyist, so I might not be using 100% correct terms above! I'm also a very, very minor SerenityOS contributor.)
Bjarne (inventor of the language) has a "blue book" that is very good and pretty comprehensive (if a bit dry and academic). I read it cover to cover in a couple days - not really retaining everything but learning what I didn't know. Then I read Scott Meyers's Effective Modern C++ to get up to date on the latest thinking and really nail down some of the finer points.
YMMV but this worked well for me to get a good feel for C++ the language. Mastering the STL and/or Boost is a journeyman job, though, as is mastering (any) build system. Of course there is no substitute for firing up the editor and writing real code.
For example, when checking the feature list of latest versions from Python, Java, C#, F#, Typescript as a couple of examples.