Does the UK, or other countries, have a political movement similar to the U.S. that opposes government investment in things like transportation, education, etc?
Not as strongly. The main issue is, for all the cheap talk that comes out of the government, the fact is that spending (on many things, but especially infrastructure) is divided into London (plenty of money) and the rest ("maybe some of what's left, and you provincials better be grateful").
Kind of, some people think we should reduce the deficit by cutting government spending, others want to spend less on the NHS, but nobody takes it anyway near the level seen in the USA.