I'm not sure about this implementation, but the parca implementation only needs the .eh_frame section of the binary (which is part of, but not all of "DWARF") which still exists even in stripped binaries.

However you then still need debug symbols of some kind to convert those to names.

Yes, it should also work without any debugging info. You'll still need unwinding tables though (used for handling exceptions in C++/panics in Rust/etc.), which are technically DWARF too (except on 32-bit ARM, which is special).