> Ask if they would feel comfortable recommending you
great suggestion.
@op -- if you can cool down from feelings of betrayal, contact your former manager / the company in a polite and professional manner and ask if they are comfortable recommending you / being a referee for your job applications.
there's a good chance your manager is genuinely unhappy to have to lay you off, and would prefer to keep you on if not for running low on cash. it doesn't cost your manager much to provide you with a strong reference, provided they're comfortable doing so.
re: op's comment
> I understand where they're coming from, but I still feel a little betrayed.
maybe think of this as a useful (but harsh) lesson -- when you are an employee, your relationship with your employer is a business relationship, that can be terminated by either party at any time (subject to terms in the employment contract & applicable laws ...). your employer isn't your friend, your employer isn't your family, it's just business.
> Should I pursue an education (I never went to college)?
if you're at a point in your career where you can get paid a liveable wage (or better, a good wage) to learn a bunch of useful and valuable stuff on the job in a role that you largely enjoy, why not keep on working?
> What kind of company should I apply to next?
personally i suspect that the value of working at a startup as a humble employee is over-valued . consider applying for more established and profitable businesses that value software development. personally i find small companies more enjoyable (provided there's a good fit with the team) but larger companies may be able to offer better pay & benefits, have more opportunities for advancement, along with more politics and frustration.