This is a nice overview of some of the fundamental aspects of modern mathematics and how they fit together. It's definitely targeted at an advanced reader though.

A book describing the large-scale structure of modern mathematics and its fundamental concepts at an undergraduate level is Mathematics, Form and Function by Saunders Mac Lane. If you like this paper but feel like it's currently out of your reach, you might like this book.

Something deep about mathematics that I feel has only begun to be explored in the last few decades or so is how intimately connected computation/logic is to algebra and geometry. Connes doesn't really touch on that here but research programs like Geometry of Interaction and Geometric Complexity Theory are really exciting to me.