Go's first commit
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> - new methods can be added to a struct outside the package where the struct is declared (need to think through all implications)
--- (edit)
The example, while being possible, looks quite improbable.
If it is only a matters of conflicting names, qualified names should be able to resolve the ambiguity; here I suppose you imagine implementing the same interface for the same type differently in two packages.
That a package implements an interface for the same external method for a third-party type is already dubious. Now, you have two packages like this and you want to import them both. That's quite a corner case.
Practically, the last package that is imported could "win" (so you can decide which you want). The compiler has to register all the possible implementations anyway, so a warning is trivial to emit on redefinitions.
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I'd guess the restriction is to allow compilation of dynamic dispatch on a package basis (think separate compilation) instead of waiting till all possible files have been processed.
You can certainly imagine schemes like specifying in the import which types to extend, but that seems complex enough that I'm not surprised a language as radically devoted to simplicity as Go left it out.
A method defined in a new package might break a type switch (or some reflection-based code) in another package.
Plus it's unclear what should happen with interfaces when multiple packages define methods with the same name.
In that case the code would break because it assumes too much. If the language was designed differently, people would code differently too. This is like having a Java abstract class which "knows" all the possible subclasses in advance: if it breaks, it is the responsibility of that abstract class for having too much coupling.
> Plus it's unclear what should happen with interfaces when multiple packages define methods with the same name.
I am not sure I understand: if methods are defined in different packages, they have different qualified names, don't they? is there any ambiguity here?
Sure, but we want interfaces to work the way they work now, because it's useful and reduces coupling.
> This is like having a Java abstract class which "knows" all the possible subclasses in advance: if it breaks, it is the responsibility of that abstract class for having too much coupling.
The analogy is not very apt, because in Go code the consumer is the one which is broken, not the producer. In the current design the consumer can make static assumptions about code, if those assumptions are helpful. This works because the assumptions don't change when new packages are imported. In other words, they work because the coupling is known and stable.
You know exactly what a type is because its definition is only in a single package, the one you import. If you could define methods anywhere, you introduce hidden dependencies and more coupling. A new package might change the nature of the type. This is not acceptable.
Of course people would write code differently if this weren't the case, but then the language would be less useful.
> I am not sure I understand: if methods are defined in different packages, they have different qualified names, don't they? is there any ambiguity here?
No, they don't have different qualified names.
package foo
import (
"fmt"
"numbers" // type T int is defined here
)
type Hexer interface {
Hex() string
}
func PrintHex(v interface{}) string {
switch vv := v.(type) {
case Hexer:
return vv.Hex()
case numbers.T:
return fmt.Sprintf("%x", vv)
default:
return "unknown"
}
}
Now what happens when you
import (
"bar"
"baz"
)
package bar
import (
"fmt"
"numbers"
)
func (t T) Hex() string {
return return fmt.Sprintf("0x%x", t) // notice the 0x
}
package baz
import (
"fmt"
"numbers"
)
func (t T) Hex() string {
return return fmt.Sprintf("0x%X", t) // notice the 0x and CAPS
}
> If you could define methods anywhere, you introduce hidden dependencies and more coupling. A new package might change the nature of the type. This is not acceptable.
This is the Expression Problem: adding new methods to existing types and/or implementing existing methods on new types. The intent is on the contrary to decouple things. You can use any feature to sabotage code.
> What will PrintHex(T(42)) return? "2a", "0x2a", or "0x2A"?
The compiler would warn you and take the latest definition into account, which is the one from "baz". That would be a pragmatic approach.
I notice that neither "bar" nor "baz" import "foo". So in your (hypothetical) example, Hex belongs to the global namespace, not "foo". I guess this is the case in non-hypothetical Go too? I didn't realize this, thanks.
As a general rule, the Go compiler does't issue warnings.
There is no latest definition. The order of imports doesn't matter, and bar and baz could be imported by different packages. I imported both in foo here since we only have three packages (four, if you count numbers), but bar and baz could be imported (separately) by qux and quux, and both of them could be imported by package waldo.
> I notice that neither "bar" nor "baz" import "foo".
Correct, they don't need to, but they couldn't anyway, as import cycles are not allowed. Package dependencies need to form an acyclic graph.
> Hex belongs to the global namespace, not "foo". I guess this is the case in non-hypothetical Go too?
No, Hex belongs to Foo. If Hex were to be used by package fred, fred would have to import foo, then use foo.Hex.
In fact, in this case, I should have made hex an unexported interface (lower case). This is a very common idiom in Go. Users of the language define internal interfaces to group other, 3rd party types, by behavior. They can then execute this behavior in a type-safe manner while having all the 3rd party types all decoupled from themselves and from your own package.
The fact that you don't have to declare interfaces before defining the types is the number one reason Go is a statically-typed language that feels like a dynamically-typed language.
You mentioned the Expression Problem. Haskell solves this by type classes. Go interfaces are dual to type classes. There is no need to add methods to existing types, as the consumer can define new types that embed the old type and its method. And if some other code uses interfaces, it will then be able to use both the old type and your new type.
package europe
import "fmt"
type Celsius float64
func (c Celsius) Kelvin() float64 { return c + 273.15 }
func (c Celsius) String() { return fmt.Sprinf("%d°C", c) }
package physics
import "europe"
type Temperature interface {
Kelvin() float64
}
func ThermalExpansion(m Material, t Temperature) float64 {
... // some code
x := t.Kelvin() * m.ThermalCoefficient()
... // some more code
return x
}
package america
import "europe"
type Fahrenheit struct {
europe.Celsius
}
func (f Fahrenheit) String() { return fmt.Sprinf("%d°F", f.Celsius * 9.0/5.0 + 32.0) }
t := america.Fahrenheit{42}
fmt.Print(t) // will print in °F
x := physics.ThermalExpansion(Steel, t) // no problemI was working with those dependencies in mind:
foo -> {fmt, numbers} // defines foo.Hex
bar -> foo // impl. foo.Hex (T)
baz -> foo // impl. foo.Hex (T)
main -> {bar, baz} // conflict detected
The example with temperatures is interesting because defining conversion methods is a recurrent problem and you missed one case that is useful too. The European author of the Celsius package doesn't know about Farenheit, or simply doesn't care about it. However, the author of the america package knows about Celsius and needs to convert between Celsius and Farenheit. He could define a ToF method which converts from °C to °F:
func (c Celsius) ToF() Farenheit { ... }
Now in Go, you don't declare methods like this. You have most likely:
func KtoF (k Kelvin) Farenheit { ... }
func CtoF (c Celsius) Farenheit { ... }
func RtoF (r Rankine) Farenheit { ... }
func DtoF (d Delisle) Farenheit { ... }
func NtoF (n Newton) Farenheit { ... }
func ToF (i interface{}) Kelvin { switch i.(type) ... }
Since you write the implementation of the method inside your struct's package, you have the right to manipulate private data there as you would do with any function. I don't understand the problem.
If external packages could add methods to a struct, thus turning private fields into effectively-public fields, the whole struct (all its fields) potentially becomes public. How do you maintain a package if your defined API (public fields/methods) is ignored and instead everything is made available to external packages? To keep compatibility, you could never refactor the package, instead you have to keep all private fields to not break external packages that use them.
I wish I could add methods from outside of my package. I currently run into cyclical dependency issues when I try and define something like...
func (g Game) GetPlayers() []Player { ... }
func (p Player) GetGame() Game { ... }
While having Game and Player in separate packages. It's not the end of the world having them in the same package, but the amount of methods does pile up...
https://github.com/golang/go/tree/cb87526ce3531557ccf69969de...
Git was written in 2005.
What did these hello world commits have to do with go? Why are they in the git history?
It's a joke basically saying "First, there was B, and it looked like this. Then, there was C, and it looked like this. Finally, there was Go, a new evolution of our work".
The git dates were clearly faked and created entirely for the purpose of this joke.
If you wanna know how to edit dates, this blog does a slightly better job than the `git-commit` man page: https://alexpeattie.com/blog/working-with-dates-in-git#chang...
I guess they decided to include a history of "Hello World" as the path to Go.
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program#Hi...
> Git was written in 2005.
Not sure about this specific case, but it isn't uncommon to migrate from another version control system (e.g. Subversion) to Git while maintaining the past history.
My oldest email in Gmail is from 1996.
My oldest file in Google Drive is from 1998.
All of which pre-date their current storage (and some of which pre-date the company that created the current storage).
None of which is as important as anything in a VCS in terms of wanting to keep history intact.
BTW: If any Google engineer is present: Gmail search over mail older than a decade is terrible. Just terrible.
If it was migrated to CVS from RCS on the day CVS was released, that gets us back to 1986.
If it was migrated to RCS from SCCS on the day RCS came out, that gets us back to 1982.
SCCS showed up in 1972, just in time for this commit.
These commits are obviously jokes, probably by Ken Thompson or Rob Pike.
> Was Go something that was brewing for a long time prior to its development and debut at Google?
Its an evolutionary descendant of Bell Labs languages: B -> NewB -> C -> Newsqueak -> Alef -> Limbo -> Go. (The channel-based concurrency model was introduced in this line with Newsqueak)
> Also, Kernighan? Maybe I live under a rock, but I wasn't aware of his involvement.
He is peripherally involved as the co-author of 'The Go Programming Language' book: http://www.gopl.io